Figures based on Association
1.Transferred Epithet: In this figure of speech an epithet or an adjective is transferred from the place to which it properly belongs to another with which the author associates it.
Examples:
I. The bell man's drowsy charm.
II. The traveller walks a weary way.
In both of the given examples the epithets "drowsy" and "weary" are shifted from the bellman and the traveller respectively to which it properly belongs to charm and way with which the author imaginatively associated it.
2.Synecdoche: By this figure a more comprehensive term is used for a less comprehensive term and vice versa whereas the less comprehensive term or vice versa is meant. The following are the varieties with illustration:
A. A part for the whole;
I. All the roofs are empty(implicating houses).
II. We need some fresh hands to do the job fast(persons).
B. The whole for the part;
I. Dust thou art, to dust returnest( implicating only body, not the entire being).
II. The year woke up in sweetest April(implicating only the season Spring, not the entire season).
C. A species for the genus;
I. A man must earn his bread with honesty(implicating food).
II. To be a comrade with the wolf and the owl(implicating wild beasts and birds).
D. A genus for the species;
I. Jesus embraces the innocent creature(implicating lamb).
II. The cosmetics shines on her lips( meaning lipstick).
E. An individual for the class(also called Antonomasia);
I. Everyman is not a Solomon(i.e., wise).
II. David and Jonathan is celebrated all through(i.e., friendship).
F. The material for the thing made;
I. He was dressed in linen( linen clothes).
II. The canvas caught the attention(portrait).
G. Abstract for the concrete;
I. Weariness walks on the way (Weary traveller).
II. Shrewdness ascends the throne throughout history(The shrewd men).
H. Concrete for the abstract;
I. There is a good deal of the fox in his character(cunning).
II. He wisely kept the fool inside( foolishness).
3.Allusion: In this figure of speech word or expression recalls the saying of some important men or the writing of a writer etc.
Example:
I. Now we clap our hands and cry "Eureka" it is clear.
II. Her face is so innocent that nobody can see the "serpent underneath".
4. Metonymy: The word metonymy is derived from the Greek word "meta" meaning change and "onoma" meaning name. As the name suggests this figure consists in substituting the name of one thing for that of another to which it has a certain relation. The following are the varieties with illustration:
A. A symbol for the things symbolized:
I. He ascended the throne(symbol of sovereignty).
II. He was raised to the bench(the office of a judge).
B. The instrument or organ for the agent:
I. The pen(writer) is mightier than sword(soldier).
II. The press(journalists) wields enormous power.
C. The effect for the cause or the cause for the effect:
I. The garden is colourful with May(flowers that bloom in the month of May).
II. Grey hairs(old age) loose vitality but not the temper.
D. The container for the things contained:
I. He drank the fatal cup( poison).
II. All the city(citizens) rose in arms.
E.The name of a passion for the object inspiring it:
I. He is the pride(the one on whom the country takes pride) of his country.
II. Lycidas, your sorrow (object for the sorrow) is not dead.
F. The act for the object of the act:
I. The principles of liberty were the ridicule (object of ridicule) of every monarch.
II. Young men's vision(object of vision)is the old men's dream.
G.The maker for his work; the place for the production:
I. All Arabia( perfumes of Arabia)breathes from yonder box.
II. Circumlocution is common in Milton(Milton's works).
Excercise
1. They survive, stamped upon these lifeless things, by the hand which made them.
Ans. Synecdoche
2.He asked for the light and there was light!
Ans. Allusion
3.Is there an Einstein among your physics students?
Ans. Synecdoche
4.She is opening her Pandora’s box of cosmetic wonders.
Ans. Allusion
5. The bench will review the case.
Ans. Metonymy
6. Jack got some new wheels!
Ans. Synecdoche
7. He is fond of Shakespeare.
Ans. Metonymy
8.Silver and gold I have none.
Ans. Synecdoche
9. Honesty creeps in silence where foxes are out on road.
Ans. Synecdoche
10. When he walks on the drowsy road, the fate frowned at him.
Ans. Transferred epithet
Figures based on Sound
1.Pun: This figure consists in the play of words by ----i) a word of expression is sometimes used equivocally in a sentence, i.e., it may admit of two entirely different meanings; ii) The same word or expression may be used more than once in a sentence in different aspects and sentences; iii) a play of words of similar sounds, different in both words and meanings.
Example:
I. After loosing a wife, the husband pines for a second.( Second here connotes both "for a short time", and a "second wife". Therefore, the word follow is here used equivocally.)
II. The mother whipped the children to be sensitive(Sensitive here connotes both "appreciative towards others' feelings" and "respond the pain". Therefore, the word sensitive is here used equivocally).
III. It is easy for a sportsman to follow the hounds than to follow an argument( The first follow means "to pursue" and the second means "to comprehend". Hence, the word follow is here used twice in a sentence with two different meanings).
IV. In cards, a good deal depends on good playing and good playing depends on good deal( The first "good deal" means "much" and the second "good deal" means "the distribution of cards". Hence, the word follow is here used twice in a sentence with two different meanings) .
V. The teacher told the boy and the boy tolled the bell( The word told and tolled are different in words and meanings but similar in sounds. Thus here its a play of words).
Vi.What he knows is history, what he misses is mystery( His-story and my-story, a play of words).
2.Onomatopoeia: In this figure of speech the sound of words is made to reflect their senses.
Example:
I.Most weary seemed the sea, weary the oar...
II. The buzzing of the gentle bees.
In the above examples the sound oar and buzzing reflect the sense.
3. Alliteration: The repetition of the same consonant or consonant sound at the beginning of each successive words in a sentence.
Example:
I. Our sweetest songs are those that deals with the saddest thoughts.
II. Betty Botter bought a butter but a bit of bitter butter.
4. Assonance: Assonance is a figure of speech that involves repeating the same vowel sound in nearby words.
Example:
I."His tender heir might bear his memory" ( The same vowel sound "e").
II."Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers"( The same vowel sound"I").
Minor Figures
1.Asyndeton: This figure, in order to create energy and vividness, consists in the omission of required connecting conjunctions.
Example:
I. Theirs be the music, the colour, the glory, the gold.
II. I slip, I slide, I gleam, I glide.
In the above examples the authors omitted required conjunctions to create energy and vividness.
2.Polysyndeton: This figure, to impart emphasis, consists in the excessive use of connecting conjunctions even when not required.
Example:
I. That hoard and sleep and feed and know me not.
II. Neither blindness nor gout, nor age, nor penury, nor domestic afflictions, nor political disappointment, nor abuse, nor proscription, nor neglect, had power to disturb his sedate and majestic patience.
In the above examples the authors made excessive use of connecting conjunctions to create emphasis.
3.Anaphora or Epanaphora: This figure consists in the repetition of same word or expression at the beginning of every successive clauses or sentences.
Example:
I. Theirs not to make reply,
Theirs not to reason why,
Theirs but to do and die.
II. The arms of man is strong; The arms of man is bold, the arms of man can forgive and the arms of man can hold.
In the above examples the authors made use of the similar expression like "Theirs" and "The arms" at the beginning of every successive clauses and sentences.
4.Epistrophe: This figure consists in the repetition of same word or expression at the end of every successive clauses or sentences.
Example:
I. Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man and writing an exact man.
II. Wit is dangerous, eloquence is dangerous, a talent for observation is dangerous....
In the above examples the authors made use of the similar expression like "man" and "dangerous" at the end of every successive clauses and sentences.
5.Palilogia: This figure consists in the repetition of same word or expression multiple times in a sentence for the sake of emphasis.
Example:
I. O horror! horror! horror!
II. O howl! howl! howl! howl !howl!
In the above examples the authors made use of the similar expression multiple times in a sentence for the sake of emphasis.
6.Tautology: This figure consists in the use of two words side by side with similar or near meaning.
Example:
I. Stop the war battle.
II. I will return this back to you.
In the above examples the similar words like "war and battle," "return and back" is used.
7.Litotes: This figure, for the sake of emphasis, mentioned the intended by denying the contrary.
Example:
I. The man is no fool(i.e., he is wise)
II. A citizen of no small city(i.e., big city).
In the above examples the authors mentioned the intended "wise" and "big" by denying the contrary "fool" and "small" respectively.
8.Hendiadys: In this figure a noun and an adjective qualifying the noun is connected by the particle 'and'.
Example:
I. He speech drew audience and attention(Attention here means the attentive audience).
II. He suffered from a disease and fatality( fatality here means the fatal disease).
9.Hyperbaton or Inversion: This figure consists in the inversion of the grammatical order of sentences.
Example:
I. Much have I travelled in the realms of Gold.
II. Sweet she was in her early youth.
In the above examples the grammatical order of sentences are inverted from "I have much travelled..." to "Much have I travelled" and " She was sweet..." to "Sweet she was...".
Exercises
1.He is not dishonoured by the people of the town.
Ans. Litotes
2. The life, the dream, the fame, the whims he had all fulfilled.
Ans. Asyndeton
3. He had his life and sufferance.
Ans. Hendiadys
4. She is not a coward.
Ans. Litotes
5. A woman is deep, a woman is strength, a woman is dream, a woman is a name.
Ans. Anaphora, Asyndeton
6. Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow.
Ans. Polysyndeton, Palilogia
7. Failure makes a man successful, pain makes a man successful, disrespect makes a man successful, disparity makes a man successful if he knows how to respond.
Ans. Epistrophe, Asyndeton.
8. The sea is deep, dark, red , blue, dull, swift.
Ans. Asyndeton
9. Honour will come and go and fame will come and go and shame will come and go. What retains is life.
Ans. Polysyndeton, Epistrophe
10. Power is defined by respect; power is refined by restrain, power is executed by hands, power is spread by man.
Ans. Anaphora, Asyndeton
11. This is a small town city.
Ans. Tautology
12. He lived in a palace house.
Ans. Tautology
13. Away!Away!Away! For I will fly to thee
Ans. Palilogia
Figures based on Imagination
1.Personification: This figure of speech consists in investing abstract ideas or inanimate objects with the attributes of a living being for literary or artistic effect.
Examples:
I.Nature might stand up to argue against man's cruelty.
II. Innocence takes the child in her warm embrace.
In the above examples the inanimate objects like Nature and the abstract idea like Innocence is endowed with human attributes of standing and embracing. Thus it sums up concept of personification.
I.Personal Metaphor: Personal metaphor consists in transference of personal attributes or emotions to inanimate objects.Personal Metaphor can be considered a species of Personification.
Examples:
I. The roaring of the angry sea resonates the vale.
II. The prattling river calms down in night.
In the above examples the inanimate objects like sea and river are given personal attributes and emotions of anger and prattling.
II. Pathetic Fallacy: This figure, being a variety of personification,consists in representing Nature or other inanimate objects echoing the feelings of man, showing interest in human actions either in sympathy or in antipathy.
Examples:
I. The hungry tides engulf the generations lost in disbelief.
II. The motherly mountain sheds tears at the wretchedness of human beings.
In both of these given examples the two aspects of nature ---the tide and the mountain are shown to participate in human action, the former in antipathy and the later in sympathy.
2.Apostrophe:This figure consists in the short impassioned address to a person who is absent or dead, or to an inanimate object or abstract ideas.
Examples:
I. O Justice ! Thou art so deceiving!
II. "Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour."
III. “O wild west wind, thou breath of Autumn's being”
In the given examples the inanimate objects like 'West Wind', the abstract idea like 'Justice' and a person, dead, like Milton is addressed in an impassioned way.
3.Vision:By this figure the author or speaker with a heightened emotion brings to his/her mind some absent or imaginary picture, and represents with such graphic reality as though it were actually present to the senses.
Examples:
I. The Nation is moving back with the Owls and Vultures roaming freely in night.
II. Amid the chaos the deity of peace is lost.
4.Hyperbole: This is a figure by which things are represented as much greater or lesser, better or worse, than they really are.
This figure is used for following purposes :
A. For giving vent to passion: While expressing passions or strong emotions of love,grief amazement.
Examples:
I. My beloved has been the fairest of mortals
II. Ten thousand words cannot suffice the narration of his treachery.
B.For imparting vividness to description: To create a vivid eloquence of the speaker to mark the attention of the hearer.
Examples:
I. Hell grew darker at their frown.
II. My lamps can gild the lustre of the moon.
C.For vituperation, ridicule and humour: To create a mood if vituperation or to invoke laughter.
Examples:
I.Even Pythagoras will fail to teach him the subtleties of Maths.
II.The misers can rob the bees and leave them honeyless.
Practice set
1.Hail to the blithe spirit!
Ans. Apostrophe
2.The melancholic night sighs upon the shoulder of the dark air.
Ans. Personal Metaphor
3. The morning touches the feet of night to receive the blessings of happy dawn.
Ans. Vision, Personification
4. The bygone heroes are singing of their victory as we forget them.
Ans. Vision
5. He can read hundred thousand laws at a glance.
Ans. Hyperbole
6. The angry sky falls heavily upon man and the deluge overwhelms the mortal eyes.
Ans. Pathetic Fallacy
7. Innocence! How art thy smile lost in Time.
Ans. Apostrophe, Personification
8. The pensive dusk sheds tear when the human heart is shadowed in love.
Ans. Pathetic Fallacy
9. Cleopatra, thy charm is still upon the onlookers who looks upto you yet fail to spoil your glory.
Ans. Apostrophe, Vision
10. All the heaven and earth and hell conspire against him and he emerged in in victory.
Ans. Hyperbole, Vision, Personification
